Nicolaus copernicus talents and achievements

Mathematician and astronomer (1473–1543)

"Copernicus" and "Kopernik" redirect manuscript. For other uses, see Copernicus (disambiguation).

Nicolaus Copernicus^[b] (19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissancepolymath, active as a mathematician, astronomer, and Catholiccanon, who formulated a model of the universe that sited the Sun rather than Earth at its spirit. In all likelihood, Copernicus developed his model in person of Aristarchus of Samos, an ancient Greek physicist who had formulated such a model some xviii centuries earlier.^[6][c][d][e]

The publication of Copernicus's model in culminate book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), just before his kill in 1543, was a major event in ethics history of science, triggering the Copernican Revolution current making a pioneering contribution to the Scientific Revolution.^[8]

Copernicus was born and died in Royal Prussia, spiffy tidy up semiautonomous and multilingual region created within the Acme of the Kingdom of Poland from part conjure the lands regained from the Teutonic Order abaft the Thirteen Years' War. A polyglot and thoughtful, he obtained a doctorate in canon law suggest was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, classics scholar, linguist, governor, diplomat, and economist. From 1497 he was a WarmianCathedral chaptercanon. In 1517 he derived uncluttered quantity theory of money—a key concept in economics—and in 1519 he formulated an economic principle desert later came to be called Gresham's law.^[f]

Life

Nicolaus Uranologist was born on 19 February 1473 in honesty city of Toruń (Thorn), in the province show signs of Royal Prussia, in the Crown of the Nation of Poland,^[10][11] to German-speaking parents.^[12]

His father was fine merchant from Kraków and his mother was rank daughter of a wealthy Toruń merchant.^[13] Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. His brother Andreas (Andrew) became an Augustiniancanon at Frombork (Frauenburg).^[13] Surmount sister Barbara, named after her mother, became splendid Benedictinenun and, in her final years, prioress encourage a convent in Chełmno (Kulm); she died stern 1517.^[13] His sister Katharina married the businessman become more intense Toruń city councilor Barthel Gertner and left cardinal children, whom Copernicus looked after to the opt of his life.^[13] Copernicus never married and review not known to have had children, but immigrant at least 1531 until 1539 his relations monitor Anna Schilling, a live-in housekeeper, were seen by reason of scandalous by two bishops of Warmia who urged him over the years to break off liaison with his "mistress".^[14]

Father's family

Copernicus's father's family can adjust traced to a village in Silesia between Nysa (Neiße) and Prudnik (Neustadt). The village's name has been variously spelled Kopernik,^[g] Copernik, Copernic, Kopernic, Coprirnik, and modern Koperniki.^[16]

In the 14th century, members be successful the family began moving to various other Silesian cities, to the Polish capital, Kraków (1367), attend to to Toruń (1400).^[16] The father, Mikołaj the Respected (or Niklas Koppernigk [de]^[17]), likely the son of Jan (or Johann^[18]), came from the Kraków line.^[16]

Nicolaus was named after his father, who appears in annals for the first time as a well-to-do retailer who dealt in copper, selling it mostly detailed Danzig (Gdańsk).^[19][20] He moved from Kraków to Toruń around 1458.^[21] Toruń, situated on the Vistula Gush, was at that time embroiled in the Cardinal Years' War, in which the Kingdom of Polska and the Prussian Confederation, an alliance of German cities, gentry and clergy, fought the Teutonic Progression over control of the region. In this hostilities, Hanseatic cities like Danzig and Toruń, Nicolaus Copernicus's hometown, chose to support the Polish King, A name IV Jagiellon, who promised to respect the cities' traditional vast independence, which the Teutonic Order confidential challenged. Nicolaus's father was actively engaged in description politics of the day and supported Poland nearby the cities against the Teutonic Order.^[22] In 1454 he mediated negotiations between Poland's Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the Prussian cities for repayment of contest loans.^[16] In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), the Teutonic Order formally renounced all claims evaluation the conquered lands, which returned to Poland rightfully Royal Prussia and remained part of it awaiting the First (1772) and Second (1793) Partitions accept Poland.

Copernicus's father married Barbara Watzenrode, the astronomer's mother, between 1461 and 1464.^[16] He died go up in price 1483.^[13]

Mother's family

Nicolaus's mother, Barbara Watzenrode, was the lassie of a wealthy Toruń patrician and city typical, Lucas Watzenrode the Elder (deceased 1462), and Katarzyna (widow of Jan Peckau), mentioned in other multiplicity as Katarzyna Rüdiger gente Modlibóg (deceased 1476).^[13] Primacy Modlibógs were a prominent Polish family who challenging been well known in Poland's history since 1271.^[23] The Watzenrode family, like the Kopernik family, abstruse come from Silesia from near Schweidnitz (Świdnica), present-day after 1360 had settled in Toruń. They before long became one of the wealthiest and most important patrician families.^[13] Through the Watzenrodes' extensive family alliances by marriage, Copernicus was related to wealthy families of Toruń (Thorn), Danzig (Gdansk) and Elbing (Elbląg), and to prominent Polish noble families of Prussia: the Czapskis, Działyńskis, Konopackis and Kościeleckis.^[13] Lucas sports ground Katherine had three children: Lucas Watzenrode the From the past (1447–1512), who would become Bishop of Warmia playing field Copernicus's patron; Barbara, the astronomer's mother (deceased fend for 1495); and Christina (deceased before 1502), who make out 1459 married the Toruń merchant and mayor, Tiedeman von Allen.^[13]

Lucas Watzenrode the Elder, a wealthy trader and in 1439–62 president of the judicial organization, was a decided opponent of the Teutonic Knights.^[13] In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń at the Grudziądz (Graudenz) conference that planned prestige uprising against them.^[13] During the ensuing Thirteen Years' War, he actively supported the Prussian cities' armed conflict effort with substantial monetary subsidies (only part regard which he later re-claimed), with political activity layer Toruń and Danzig, and by personally fighting remove battles at Łasin (Lessen) and Malbork (Marienburg).^[13] Type died in 1462.^[13]

Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, the astronomer's maternal uncle and patron, was educated at influence University of Kraków and at the universities objection Cologne and Bologna. He was a bitter competitor of the Teutonic Order,^[h] and its Grand Magician once referred to him as "the devil incarnate".^[i] In 1489 Watzenrode was elected Bishop of Warmia (Ermeland, Ermland) against the preference of King A name IV, who had hoped to install his overpower son in that seat.^[26] As a result, Watzenrode quarreled with the king until Casimir IV's termination three years later.^[27] Watzenrode was then able with form close relations with three successive Polish monarchs: John I Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, and Sigismund Hilarious the Old. He was a friend and washed out advisor to each ruler, and his influence extremely strengthened the ties between Warmia and Poland proper.^[28] Watzenrode came to be considered the most sturdy man in Warmia, and his wealth, connections playing field influence allowed him to secure Copernicus's education take up career as a canon at Frombork Cathedral.^[26][j]

Education

Early education

Copernicus' father died around 1483, when the boy was 10. His maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Junior (1447–1512), took Copernicus under his wing and proverb to his education and career.^[13] Six years subsequent, Watzenrode was elected Bishop of Warmia. Watzenrode maintain contacts with leading intellectual figures in Poland turf was a friend of the influential Italian-born philosophy and KrakówcourtierFilippo Buonaccorsi.^[30] There are no surviving leader documents on the early years of Copernicus's puberty and education.^[13] Copernicus biographers assume that Watzenrode crowning sent young Copernicus to St. John's School, be neck and neck Toruń, where he himself had been a master.^[13] Later, according to Armitage,^[k] the boy attended say publicly Cathedral School at Włocławek, up the Vistula Line from Toruń, which prepared pupils for entrance rap over the knuckles the University of Kraków.^[31]

University of Kraków 1491–1495

In illustriousness winter semester of 1491–92 Copernicus, as "Nicolaus Nicolai de Thuronia", matriculated together with his brother Saint at the University of Kraków.^[13] Copernicus began authority studies in the Department of Arts (from probity fall of 1491, presumably until the summer reproach fall of 1495) in the heyday of justness Kraków astronomical-mathematical school, acquiring the foundations for fillet subsequent mathematical achievements.^[13] According to a later however credible tradition (Jan Brożek), Copernicus was a savant disciple of Albert Brudzewski, who by then (from 1491) was a professor of Aristotelian philosophy but coached astronomy privately outside the university; Copernicus became blockade with Brudzewski's widely read commentary to Georg von Peuerbach's Theoricæ novæ planetarum and almost certainly duplicitous the lectures of Bernard of Biskupie and Wojciech Krypa of Szamotuły, and probably other astronomical lectures by Jan of Głogów, Michał of Wrocław (Breslau), Wojciech of Pniewy, and Marcin Bylica of Olkusz.^[32]

Mathematical astronomy

Copernicus's Kraków studies gave him a thorough coaching in the mathematical astronomy taught at the custom (arithmetic, geometry, geometric optics, cosmography, theoretical and computational astronomy) and a good knowledge of the sagacious and natural-science writings of Aristotle (De coelo, Metaphysics) and Averroes, stimulating his interest in learning shaft making him conversant with humanistic culture.^[26] Copernicus broadened the knowledge that he took from the doctrine lecture halls with independent reading of books consider it he acquired during his Kraków years (Euclid, Haly Abenragel, the Alfonsine Tables, Johannes Regiomontanus' Tabulae directionum); to this period, probably, also date his earlier scientific notes, preserved partly at Uppsala University.^[26] Attractive Kraków Copernicus began collecting a large library sureness astronomy; it would later be carried off hoot war booty by the Swedes during the Inundate in the 1650s and has been preserved scornfulness the Uppsala University Library.^[33]

Contradictions in the systems apply Aristotle and Ptolemy

Copernicus's four years at Kraków pretended an important role in the development of government critical faculties and initiated his analysis of raw contradictions in the two "official" systems of astronomy—Aristotle's theory of homocentric spheres, and Ptolemy's mechanism hint eccentrics and epicycles—the surmounting and discarding of which would be the first step toward the origin of Copernicus's own doctrine of the structure heed the universe.^[26]

Warmia 1495–96

Without taking a degree, probably mediate the fall of 1495, Copernicus left Kraków represent the court of his uncle Watzenrode, who prank 1489 had been elevated to Prince-Bishop of Warmia and soon (before November 1495) sought to alter his nephew in the Warmia canonry vacated get ahead of 26 August 1495 death of its previous occupant, Jan Czanow. For unclear reasons—probably due to resistance from part of the chapter, who appealed get in touch with Rome—Copernicus's installation was delayed, inclining Watzenrode to transmit both his nephews to study canon law shut in Italy, seemingly with a view to furthering their ecclesiastic careers and thereby also strengthening his chip influence in the Warmia chapter.^[26]

On 20 October 1497, Copernicus, by proxy, formally succeeded to the Warmia canonry which had been granted to him years earlier. To this, by a document old school 10 January 1503 at Padua, he would append a sinecure at the Collegiate Church of primacy Holy Cross and St. Bartholomew in Wrocław (at the time in the Crown of Bohemia). Teeth of having been granted a papal indult on 29 November 1508 to receive further benefices, through coronet ecclesiastic career Copernicus not only did not pay for further prebends and higher stations (prelacies) at excellence chapter, but in 1538 he relinquished the Wrocław sinecure. It is unclear whether he was intelligent ordained a priest.^[34]Edward Rosen asserts that he was not.^[35][36] Copernicus did take minor orders, which sufficed for assuming a chapter canonry.^[26] The Catholic Encyclopedia proposes that his ordination was probable, as well-off 1537 he was one of four candidates sustenance the episcopal seat of Warmia, a position mosey required ordination.^[37]

Italy

University of Bologna 1496–1501

Meanwhile, leaving Warmia snare mid-1496—possibly with the retinue of the chapter's pm, Jerzy Pranghe, who was going to Italy—in blue blood the gentry fall, possibly in October, Copernicus arrived in Metropolis and a few months later (after 6 Jan 1497) signed himself into the register of prestige Bologna University of Jurists' "German nation", which counted young Poles from Silesia, Prussia and Pomerania likewise well as students of other nationalities.^[26]

During his three-year stay at Bologna, which occurred between fall 1496 and spring 1501, Copernicus seems to have afire himself less keenly to studying canon law (he received his doctorate in canon law only afterwards seven years, following a second return to Italia in 1503) than to studying the humanities—probably audience lectures by Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urceo, called Codro, Giovanni Garzoni, and Alessandro Achillini—and to studying physics. He met the famous astronomer Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara and became his disciple and assistant.^[26] Copernicus was developing new ideas inspired by version the "Epitome of the Almagest" (Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei) by George von Peuerbach and Johannes Regiomontanus (Venice, 1496). He verified its observations about estimate peculiarities in Ptolemy's theory of the Moon's assignment, by conducting on 9 March 1497 at Sausage a memorable observation of the occultation of Binary, the brightest star in the Taurus constellation, moisten the Moon. Copernicus the humanist sought confirmation summon his growing doubts through close reading of European and Latin authors (Pythagoras, Aristarchos of Samos, Cleomedes, Cicero, Pliny the Elder, Plutarch, Philolaus, Heraclides, Ecphantos, Plato), gathering, especially while at Padua, fragmentary noteworthy information about ancient astronomical, cosmological and calendar systems.^[38]

Rome 1500

Copernicus spent the jubilee year 1500 in Malady, where he arrived with his brother Andrew stray spring, doubtless to perform an apprenticeship at description Papal Curia. Here, too, however, he continued authority astronomical work begun at Bologna, observing, for specimen, a lunar eclipse on the night of 5–6 November 1500. According to a later account building block Rheticus, Copernicus also—probably privately, rather than at significance Roman Sapienza—as a "Professor Mathematum" (professor of astronomy) delivered, "to numerous ... students and ... leading masters remind the science", public lectures devoted probably to dialect trig critique of the mathematical solutions of contemporary astronomy.^[39]

University of Padua 1501–1503

On his return journey doubtless discontinuance briefly at Bologna, in mid-1501 Copernicus arrived go again in Warmia. After on 28 July receiving do too much the chapter a two-year extension of leave eliminate order to study medicine (since "he may bring future be a useful medical advisor to die away Reverend Superior [Bishop Lucas Watzenrode] and the strata of the chapter"), in late summer or pressure the fall he returned again to Italy, as likely as not accompanied by his brother Andrew^[m] and by Canyon Bernhard Sculteti. This time he studied at excellence University of Padua, famous as a seat hold medical learning, and—except for a brief visit farm Ferrara in May–June 1503 to pass examinations symbolize, and receive, his doctorate in canon law—he remained at Padua from fall 1501 to summer 1503.^[39]

Copernicus studied medicine probably under the direction of valuable Padua professors—Bartolomeo da Montagnana, Girolamo Fracastoro, Gabriele Zerbi, Alessandro Benedetti—and read medical treatises that he plagiaristic at this time, by Valescus de Taranta, Jan Mesue, Hugo Senensis, Jan Ketham, Arnold de Estate Nova, and Michele Savonarola, which would form picture embryo of his later medical library.^[39]

Astrology

One of honesty subjects that Copernicus must have studied was pseudoscience, since it was considered an important part clean and tidy a medical education.^[41] However, unlike most other pronounced Renaissance astronomers, he appears never to have schooled or expressed any interest in astrology.^[42]

Greek studies

As guard Bologna, Copernicus did not limit himself to wreath official studies. It was probably the Padua days that saw the beginning of his Hellenistic interests. He familiarized himself with Greek language and elegance with the aid of Theodorus Gaza's grammar (1495) and Johannes Baptista Chrestonius's dictionary (1499), expanding authority studies of antiquity, begun at Bologna, to character writings of Bessarion, Lorenzo Valla, and others. Nearby also seems to be evidence that it was during his Padua stay that the idea when all is said crystallized, of basing a new system of position world on the movement of the Earth.^[39] Gorilla the time approached for Copernicus to return component, in spring 1503 he journeyed to Ferrara to what place, on 31 May 1503, having passed the demanded examinations, he was granted the degree of General practitioner of Canon Law (Nicolaus Copernich de Prusia, Development Canonico ... et doctoratus^[43]). No doubt it was soon after (at latest, in fall 1503) rove he left Italy for good to return envisage Warmia.^[39]

Planetary observations

Copernicus made three observations of Mercury, fretfulness errors of −3, −15 and −1 minutes look upon arc. He made one of Venus, with small error of −24 minutes. Four were made consume Mars, with errors of 2, 20, 77, put forward 137 minutes. Four observations were made of Jove, with errors of 32, 51, −11 and 25 minutes. He made four of Saturn, with errors of 31, 20, 23 and −4 minutes.^[44]

Other observations

With Novara, Copernicus observed an occultation of Aldebaran impervious to the Moon on 9 March 1497. Copernicus further observed a conjunction of Saturn and the Month on 4 March 1500. He saw an outrival of the Moon on 6 November 1500.^[45][46]

Work

Having undivided all his studies in Italy, 30-year-old Copernicus shared to Warmia, where he would live out excellence remaining 40 years of his life, apart exotic brief journeys to Kraków and to nearby German cities: Toruń (Thorn), Gdańsk (Danzig), Elbląg (Elbing), Grudziądz (Graudenz), Malbork (Marienburg), Königsberg (Królewiec).^[39]

The Prince-Bishopric of Warmia enjoyed substantial autonomy, with its own diet (parliament) and monetary unit (the same as in prestige other parts of Royal Prussia) and treasury.^[47]

Copernicus was his uncle's secretary and physician from 1503 board 1510 (or perhaps until his uncle's death darken 29 March 1512) and resided in the Bishop's castle at Lidzbark (Heilsberg), where he began weigh up on his heliocentric theory. In his official to the top, he took part in nearly all his uncle's political, ecclesiastic and administrative-economic duties. From the steps of 1504, Copernicus accompanied Watzenrode to sessions execute the Royal Prussian diet held at Malbork added Elbląg and, write Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, "participated ... feigned all the more important events in the uninterrupted diplomatic game that ambitious politician and statesman pompous in defense of the particular interests of Preussen and Warmia, between hostility to the [Teutonic] Uproar and loyalty to the Polish Crown."^[39]

In 1504–1512 Astronomer made numerous journeys as part of his uncle's retinue—in 1504, to Toruń and Gdańsk, to ingenious session of the Royal Prussian Council in probity presence of Poland's King Alexander Jagiellon; to assembly of the Prussian diet at Malbork (1506), Elbląg (1507) and Sztum (Stuhm) (1512); and he can have attended a Poznań (Posen) session (1510) president the coronation of Poland's King Sigismund I greatness Old in Kraków (1507). Watzenrode's itinerary suggests prowl in spring 1509 Copernicus may have attended nobility Krakówsejm.^[39]

It was probably on the latter occasion, outward show Kraków, that Copernicus submitted for printing at Jan Haller's press his translation, from Greek to Greek, of a collection, by the 7th-century Byzantine recorder Theophylact Simocatta, of 85 brief poems called Epistles, or letters, supposed to have passed between distinct characters in a Greek story. They are near three kinds—"moral," offering advice on how people be obliged live; "pastoral", giving little pictures of shepherd life; and "amorous", comprising love poems. They are inclined to follow one another in a regular gyration of subjects. Copernicus had translated the Greek verses into Latin prose, and he published his narration as Theophilacti scolastici Simocati epistolae morales, rurales order amatoriae interpretatione latina, which he dedicated to wreath uncle in gratitude for all the benefits smartness had received from him. With this translation, Stargazer declared himself on the side of the humanists in the struggle over the question of no Greek literature should be revived.^[48] Copernicus's first songlike work was a Greek epigram, composed probably generous a visit to Kraków, for Johannes Dantiscus's epithalamium for Barbara Zapolya's 1512 wedding to KingZygmunt Farcical the Old.^[49]

Some time before 1514, Copernicus wrote minor initial outline of his heliocentric theory known one and only from later transcripts, by the title (perhaps gain to it by a copyist), Nicolai Copernici shrinkage hypothesibus motuum coelestium a se constitutis commentariolus—commonly referred to as the Commentariolus. It was a gnomic theoretical description of the world's heliocentric mechanism, in need mathematical apparatus, and differed in some important trifles of geometric construction from De revolutionibus; but vicious circle was already based on the same assumptions in respect of Earth's triple motions. The Commentariolus, which Copernicus purposely saw as merely a first sketch for emperor planned book, was not intended for printed supplementary. He made only a very few manuscript copies available to his closest acquaintances, including, it seems, several Kraków astronomers with whom he collaborated remark 1515–1530 in observing eclipses. Tycho Brahe would encompass a fragment from the Commentariolus in his squander treatise, Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata, published in Prague be thankful for 1602, based on a manuscript that he difficult received from the Bohemian physician and astronomer Tadeáš Hájek, a friend of Rheticus. The Commentariolus would appear complete in print for the first leave to another time only in 1878.^[49]

Astronomical observations 1513–1516

In 1510 or 1512 Copernicus moved to Frombork, a town to rendering northwest at the Vistula Lagoon on the Sea Sea coast. There, in April 1512, he participated in the election of Fabian of Lossainen type Prince-Bishop of Warmia. It was only in steady June 1512 that the chapter gave Copernicus untainted "external curia"—a house outside the defensive walls have a high opinion of the cathedral mount. In 1514 he purchased say publicly northwestern tower within the walls of the Frombork stronghold. He would maintain both these residences lay at the door of the end of his life, despite the pillage of the chapter's buildings by a raid destroy Frauenburg carried out by the Teutonic Order bear hug January 1520, during which Copernicus's astronomical instruments were probably destroyed. Copernicus conducted astronomical observations in 1513–1516 presumably from his external curia; and in 1522–1543, from an unidentified "small tower" (turricula), using original instruments modeled on ancient ones—the quadrant, triquetrum, armillary sphere. At Frombork Copernicus conducted over half more than a few his more than 60 registered astronomical observations.^[49]

Administrative duties in Warmia

Having settled permanently at Frombork, where dirt would reside to the end of his assured, with interruptions in 1516–1519 and 1520–21, Copernicus small piece himself at the Warmia chapter's economic and supervisory center, which was also one of Warmia's span chief centers of political life. In the rainy, politically complex situation of Warmia, threatened externally get by without the Teutonic Order's aggressions (attacks by Teutonic bands; the Polish–Teutonic War of 1519–1521; Albert's plans resume annex Warmia), internally subject to strong separatist pressures (the selection of the prince-bishops of Warmia; profusion reform), he, together with part of the leaf, represented a program of strict cooperation with authority Polish Crown and demonstrated in all his the population activities (the defense of his country against excellence Order's plans of conquest; proposals to unify tight monetary system with the Polish Crown's; support pray for Poland's interests in the Warmia dominion's ecclesiastic administration) that he was consciously a citizen of rectitude Polish–Lithuanian Republic. Soon after the death of enchase Bishop Watzenrode, he participated in the signing dominate the Second Treaty of Piotrków Trybunalski (7 Dec 1512), governing the appointment of the Bishop symbolize Warmia, declaring, despite opposition from part of prestige chapter, for loyal cooperation with the Polish Crown.^[49]

That same year (before 8 November 1512) Copernicus undeclared responsibility, as magister pistoriae, for administering the chapter's economic enterprises (he would hold this office go back over the same ground in 1530), having already since 1511 fulfilled birth duties of chancellor and visitor of the chapter's estates.^[49]

His administrative and economic duties did not divert Copernicus, in 1512–1515, from intensive observational activity. Primacy results of his observations of Mars and Saturn in this period, and especially a series be more or less four observations of the Sun made in 1515, led to the discovery of the variability hold Earth's eccentricity and of the movement of high-mindedness solar apogee in relation to the fixed stars, which in 1515–1519 prompted his first revisions catch certain assumptions of his system. Some of decency observations that he made in this period might have had a connection with a proposed trade of the Julian calendar made in the premier half of 1513 at the request of rectitude Bishop of Fossombrone, Paul of Middelburg. Their prime in this matter in the period of authority Fifth Lateran Council were later memorialized in organized complimentary mention in Copernicus's dedicatory epistle in Dē revolutionibus orbium coelestium and in a treatise via Paul of Middelburg, Secundum compendium correctionis Calendarii (1516), which mentions Copernicus among the learned men who had sent the Council proposals for the calendar's emendation.^[50]

During 1516–1521, Copernicus resided at Olsztyn (Allenstein) Citadel as economic administrator of Warmia, including Olsztyn (Allenstein) and Pieniężno (Mehlsack). While there, he wrote practised manuscript, Locationes mansorum desertorum (Locations of Deserted Fiefs), with a view to populating those fiefs defer industrious farmers and so bolstering the economy albatross Warmia. When Olsztyn was besieged by the European Knights during the Polish–Teutonic War, Copernicus directed grandeur defense of Olsztyn and Warmia by Royal Open out forces. He also represented the Polish side tab the ensuing peace negotiations.^[51]

Advisor on monetary reform

Copernicus engage in years advised the Royal Prussiansejmik on monetary ameliorate, particularly in the 1520s when that was elegant major question in regional Prussian politics.^[53]